Linking the Autotaxin-LPA Axis to Medicinal Cannabis and the Endocannabinoid System.

Over the past few decades, many current uses for cannabinoids have been described, ranging from controlling epilepsy to neuropathic pain and anxiety treatment. Medicines containing cannabinoids have been approved by both the FDA and the EMA for the control of specific diseases for which there are few alternatives. However, the molecular-level mechanism of action of cannabinoids is still poorly understood. Recently, cannabinoids have been shown to interact with autotaxin (ATX), a secreted lysophospholipase D enzyme responsible for catalyzing lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) to lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), a pleiotropic growth factor that interacts with LPA receptors. In addition, a high-resolution structure of ATX in complex with THC has recently been published, accompanied by biochemical studies investigating this interaction. Due to their LPA-like structure, endocannabinoids have been shown to interact with ATX in a less potent manner. This finding opens new areas of research regarding cannabinoids and endocannabinoids, as it could establish the effect of these compounds at the molecular level, particularly in relation to inflammation, which cannot be explained by the interaction with CB1 and CB2 receptors alone. Further research is needed to elucidate the mechanism behind the interaction between cannabinoids and endocannabinoids in humans and to fully explore the therapeutic potential of such approaches.

Identification of two novel chemical classes of Autotaxin (ATX) inhibitors using Enalos Asclepios KNIME nodes.

Autotaxin is a secreted lysophospholipase D which is a member of the ectonucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase family converting extracellular lysophosphatidylcholine and other non-choline lysophospholipids, such as lysophosphatidylethanolamine and lysophosphatidylserine, to the lipid mediator lysophosphatidic acid. Autotaxin is implicated in various fibroproliferative diseases including interstitial lung diseases, such as idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and hepatic fibrosis, as well as in cancer. In this study, we present an effort of identifying ATX inhibitors that bind to allosteric ATX binding sites using the Enalos Asclepios KNIME Node. All the available PDB crystal structures of ATX were collected, prepared, and aligned. Visual examination of these structures led to the identification of four crystal structures of human ATX co-crystallized with four known inhibitors. These inhibitors bind to five binding sites with five different binding modes. These five binding sites were thereafter used to virtually screen a compound library of 14,000 compounds to identify molecules that bind to allosteric sites. Based on the binding mode and interactions, the docking score, and the frequency that a compound comes up as a top-ranked among the five binding sites, 24 compounds were selected for in vitro testing. Finally, two compounds emerged with inhibitory activity against ATX in the low micromolar range, while their mode of inhibition and binding pattern were also studied. The two derivatives identified herein can serve as "hits" towards developing novel classes of ATX allosteric inhibitors.

Structure of a phosphodiesterase from Streptomyces sanglieri with a novel C-terminal domain.

A glycerophosphoethanolamine ethanolaminephosphodiesterase (GPE-EP) from Streptomyces sanglieri hydrolyzes glycerophosphoethanolamine to phosphoethanolamine and glycerol. The structure of GPE-EP was determined by the molecular replacement method using a search model generated with AlphaFold2. This structure includes the entire length of the mature protein and it is composed of an N-terminal domain and a novel C-terminal domain connected to a flexible linker. The N-terminal domain is the catalytic domain containing calcium ions at the catalytic site. Coordination bonds were observed between five amino acid residues and glycerol. Although the function of the C-terminal domain is currently unknown, inter-domain interactions between the N- and C-terminal domains may contribute to its relatively high thermostability.

A phosphodiesterase pathway essential for lymphangiogenic growth arrest and maturation.

In developing embryos, downregulation of lymphatic endothelial proliferation is needed for maturation of lymphatic vessels into a hierarchical network. In this issue of Developmental Cell, Carlantoni discover that phosphodiesterase2A controls lymphatic endothelial growth arrest and maturation via regulation of cGMP, p38 MAP kinase, and Notch pathway.

Discovery of Pyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidin-7-one Derivatives as Highly Potent and Efficacious Ectonucleotide Pyrophosphatase/Phosphodiesterase 1 (ENPP1) Inhibitors for Cancer Treatment.

Ectonucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase 1 (ENPP1) is an extracellular enzyme responsible for hydrolyzing cyclic guanosine monophosphate-adenosine monophosphate (cGAMP), the endogenous agonist for the stimulator of interferon genes (STING) pathway. Inhibition of ENPP1 can trigger STING and promote antitumor immunity, offering an attractive therapeutic target for cancer immunotherapy. Despite progress in the discovery of ENPP1 inhibitors, the diversity in chemical structures and the efficacy of the agents are far from desirable, emphasizing the demand for novel inhibitors. Herein, we describe the design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of a series of ENPP1 inhibitors based on the pyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidin-7-one scaffold. Optimization efforts led to compound 31 with significant potency in both ENPP1 inhibition and STING pathway stimulation in vitro. Notably, 31 demonstrated in vivo efficacy in a syngeneic 4T1 mouse triple negative breast cancer model. These findings provide a promising lead compound with a novel scaffold for further drug development in cancer immunotherapy.

Simulated Microgravity and Hypergravity Affect the Expression Level of Soluble Guanylate Cyclase, Adenylate Cyclase, and Phosphodiesterase Genesin Rat Ventricular Cardiomyocytes.

Ion channels activity is regulated through soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC) and adenylate cyclase (AC) pathways, while phosphodiesterases (PDE) control the intracellular levels of cAMP and cGMP. Here we applied RNA transcriptome sequencing to study changes in the gene expression of the sGC, AC, and PDE isoforms in isolated rat ventricular cardiomyocytes under conditions of microgravity and hypergravity. Our results demonstrate that microgravity reduces the expression of sGC isoform genes, while hypergravity increases their expression. For a subset of AC isoforms, gene expression either increased or decreased under both microgravity and hypergravity conditions. The expression of genes encoding 10 PDE isoforms decreased under microgravity, but increased under hypergravity. However, under both microgravity and hypergravity, the gene expression increased for 7 PDE isoforms and decreased for 3 PDE isoforms. Overall, our findings indicate specific gravity-dependent changes in the expression of genes of isoforms associated with the studied enzymes.

New Dual Inhibitors of Tyrosyl-DNA Phosphodiesterase 1 and 2 Based on Deoxycholic Acid: Design, Synthesis, Cytotoxicity, and Molecular Modeling.

Deoxycholic acid derivatives containing various heterocyclic functional groups at C-3 on the steroid scaffold were designed and synthesized as promising dual tyrosyl-DNA phosphodiesterase 1 and 2 (TDP1 and TDP2) inhibitors, which are potential targets to potentiate topoisomerase poison antitumor therapy. The methyl esters of DCA derivatives with benzothiazole or benzimidazole moieties at C-3 demonstrated promising inhibitory activity in vitro against TDP1 with IC50 values in the submicromolar range. Furthermore, methyl esters 4d-e, as well as their acid counterparts 3d-e, inhibited the phosphodiesterase activity of both TDP1 and TDP2. The combinations of compounds 3d-e and 4d-e with low-toxic concentrations of antitumor drugs topotecan and etoposide showed significantly greater cytotoxicity than the compounds alone. The docking of the derivatives into the binding sites of TDP1 and TDP2 predicted plausible binding modes of the DCA derivatives.

Effects of the Phosphodiesterase 10A Inhibitor MR1916 on Alcohol Self-Administration and Striatal Gene Expression in Post-Chronic Intermittent Ethanol-Exposed Rats.

Alcohol use disorder (AUD) requires new neurobiological targets. Problematic drinking involves underactive indirect pathway medium spiny neurons (iMSNs) that subserve adaptive behavioral selection vs. overactive direct pathway MSNs (dMSNs) that promote drinking, with a shift from ventromedial to dorsolateral striatal (VMS, DLS) control of EtOH-related behavior. We hypothesized that inhibiting phosphodiesterase 10A (PDE10A), enriched in striatal MSNs, would reduce EtOH self-administration in rats with a history of chronic intermittent ethanol exposure. To test this, Wistar rats (n = 10/sex) with a history of chronic intermittent EtOH (CIE) vapor exposure received MR1916 (i.p., 0, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, and 0.4 µmol/kg), a PDE10A inhibitor, before operant EtOH self-administration sessions. We determined whether MR1916 altered the expression of MSN markers (Pde10a, Drd1, Drd2, Penk, and Tac1) and immediate-early genes (IEG) (Fos, Fosb, ΔFosb, and Egr1) in EtOH-naïve (n = 5-6/grp) and post-CIE (n = 6-8/grp) rats. MR1916 reduced the EtOH self-administration of high-drinking, post-CIE males, but increased it at a low, but not higher, doses, in females and low-drinking males. MR1916 increased Egr1, Fos, and FosB in the DLS, modulated by sex and alcohol history. MR1916 elicited dMSN vs. iMSN markers differently in ethanol-naïve vs. post-CIE rats. High-drinking, post-CIE males showed higher DLS Drd1 and VMS IEG expression. Our results implicate a role and potential striatal bases of PDE10A inhibitors to influence post-dependent drinking.

Ecto-nucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase 1 inhibitors: Research progress and prospects.

The cancer immunotherapies involved in cGAS-STING pathway have been made great progress in recent years. STING agonists exhibit broad-spectrum anti-tumor effects with strong immune response. As a negative regulator of the cGAS-STING pathway, ecto-nucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase 1 (ENPP1) can hydrolyze extracellular 2', 3'-cGAMP and reduce extracellular 2', 3'-cGAMP concentration. ENPP1 has been validated to play important roles in diabetes, cancers, and cardiovascular disease and now become a promising target for tumor immunotherapy. Several ENPP1 inhibitors under development have shown good anti-tumor effects alone or in combination with other agents in clinical and preclinical researches. In this review, the biological profiles of ENPP1 were described, and the structures and the structure-activity relationships (SAR) of the known ENPP1 inhibitors were summarized. This review also provided the prospects and challenges in the development of ENPP1 inhibitors.

The perspective of cAMP/cGMP signaling and cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases in aortic aneurysm and dissection.

Aortic aneurysm (AA) and dissection (AD) are aortic diseases caused primarily by medial layer degeneration and perivascular inflammation. They are lethal when the rupture happens. Vascular smooth muscle cells (SMCs) play critical roles in the pathogenesis of medial degeneration, characterized by SMC loss and elastin fiber degradation. Many molecular pathways, including cyclic nucleotide signaling, have been reported in regulating vascular SMC functions, matrix remodeling, and vascular structure integrity. Intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) are second messengers that mediate intracellular signaling transduction through activating effectors, such as protein kinase A (PKA) and PKG, respectively. cAMP and cGMP are synthesized by adenylyl cyclase (AC) and guanylyl cyclase (GC), respectively, and degraded by cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases (PDEs). In this review, we will discuss the roles and mechanisms of cAMP/cGMP signaling and PDEs in AA/AD formation and progression and the potential of PDE inhibitors in AA/AD, whether they are beneficial or detrimental. We also performed database analysis and summarized the results showing PDEs with significant expression changes under AA/AD, which should provide rationales for future research on PDEs in AA/AD.

Dysregulated autotaxin expression by T cells in multiple sclerosis.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a demyelinating disease characterized by infiltration of autoreactive T cells into the central nervous system (CNS). In order to understand how activated, autoreactive T cells are able to cross the blood brain barrier, the unique molecular characteristics of pathogenic T cells need to be more thoroughly examined. In previous work, our laboratory found autotaxin (ATX) to be upregulated by activated autoreactive T cells in the mouse model of MS. ATX is a secreted glycoprotein that promotes T cell chemokinesis and transmigration through catalysis of lysophoshphatidic acid (LPA). ATX is elevated in the serum of MS patients during active disease phases, and we previously found that inhibiting ATX decreases severity of neurological deficits in the mouse model. In this study, ATX expression was found to be lower in MS patient immune cells during rest, but significantly increased during early activation in a manner not seen in healthy controls. The ribosomal binding protein HuR, which stabilizes ATX mRNA, was also increased in MS patients in a similar pattern to that of ATX, suggesting it may be helping regulate ATX levels after activation. The proinflammatory cytokine interleukin-23 (IL-23) was shown to induce prolonged ATX expression in MS patient Th1 and Th17 cells. Finally, through ChIP, re-ChIP analysis, we show that IL-23 may be signaling through pSTAT3/pSTAT4 heterodimers to induce expression of ATX. Taken together, these findings elucidate cell types that may be contributing to elevated serum ATX levels in MS patients and identify potential drivers of sustained expression in encephalitogenic T cells.

Enhancement of the Antitumor and Antimetastatic Effect of Topotecan and Normalization of Blood Counts in Mice with Lewis Carcinoma by Tdp1 Inhibitors-New Usnic Acid Derivatives.

Tyrosyl-DNA phosphodiesterase 1 (Tdp1) is an important DNA repair enzyme and one of the causes of tumor resistance to topoisomerase 1 inhibitors such as topotecan. Inhibitors of this Tdp1 in combination with topotecan may improve the effectiveness of therapy. In this work, we synthesized usnic acid derivatives, which are hybrids of its known derivatives: tumor sensitizers to topotecan. New compounds inhibit Tdp1 in the micromolar and submicromolar concentration range; some of them enhance the effect of topotecan on the metabolic activity of cells of various lines according to the MTT test. One of the new compounds (compound 7) not only sensitizes Krebs-2 and Lewis carcinomas of mice to the action of topotecan, but also normalizes the state of the peripheral blood of mice, which is disturbed in the presence of a tumor. Thus, the synthesized substances may be the prototype of a new class of additional therapy for cancer.

Binding of GTP to BifA is required for the production of Pel-dependent biofilms in Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

The Pel exopolysaccharide is one of the most mechanistically conserved and phylogenetically diverse bacterial biofilm matrix determinants. Pel is a major contributor to the structural integrity of Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms, and its biosynthesis is regulated by the binding of cyclic-3',5'-dimeric guanosine monophosphate (c-di-GMP) to the PelD receptor. c-di-GMP is synthesized from two molecules of guanosine triphosphate (GTP) by diguanylate cyclases with GGDEF domains and degraded by phosphodiesterases with EAL or HD-GYP domains. As the P. aeruginosa genome encodes 43 c-di-GMP metabolic enzymes, one way signaling specificity can be achieved is through direct interaction between specific enzyme-receptor pairs. Here, we show that the inner membrane hybrid GGDEF-EAL enzyme, BifA, directly interacts with PelD via its cytoplasmic HAMP, GGDEF, and EAL domains. Despite having no catalytic function, the degenerate active site motif of the BifA GGDEF domain (GGDQF) has retained the ability to bind GTP with micromolar affinity. Mutations that abolish GTP binding result in increased biofilm formation but stable global c-di-GMP levels. Our data suggest that BifA forms a dimer in solution and that GTP binding induces conformational changes in dimeric BifA that enhance the BifA-PelD interaction and stimulate its phosphodiesterase activity, thus reducing c-di-GMP levels and downregulating Pel biosynthesis. Structural comparisons between the dimeric AlphaFold2 model of BifA and the structures of other hybrid GGDEF-EAL proteins suggest that the regulation of BifA by GTP may occur through a novel mechanism.IMPORTANCEc-di-GMP is the most common cyclic dinucleotide used by bacteria to regulate phenotypes such as motility, biofilm formation, virulence factor production, cell cycle progression, and cell differentiation. While the identification and initial characterization of c-di-GMP metabolic enzymes are well established, our understanding of how these enzymes are regulated to provide signaling specificity remains understudied. Here we demonstrate that the inactive GGDEF domain of BifA binds GTP and regulates the adjacent phosphodiesterase EAL domain, ultimately downregulating Pel-dependent P. aeruginosa biofilm formation through an interaction with PelD. This discovery adds to the growing body of literature regarding how hybrid GGDEF-EAL enzymes are regulated and provides additional precedence for studying how direct interactions between c-di-GMP metabolic enzymes and effectors result in signaling specificity.

The dual GGDEF/EAL domain enzyme PA0285 is a Pseudomonas species housekeeping phosphodiesterase regulating early attachment and biofilm architecture.

Bacterial lifestyles depend on conditions encountered during colonization. The transition between planktonic and biofilm growth is dependent on the intracellular second messenger c-di-GMP. High c-di-GMP levels driven by diguanylate cyclases (DGCs) activity favor biofilm formation, while low levels were maintained by phosphodiesterases (PDE) encourage planktonic lifestyle. The activity of these enzymes can be modulated by stimuli-sensing domains such as Per-ARNT-Sim (PAS). In Pseudomonas aeruginosa, more than 40 PDE/DGC are involved in c-di-GMP homeostasis, including 16 dual proteins possessing both canonical DGC and PDE motifs, that is, GGDEF and EAL, respectively. It was reported that deletion of the EAL/GGDEF dual enzyme PA0285, one of five c-di-GMP-related enzymes conserved across all Pseudomonas species, impacts biofilms. PA0285 is anchored in the membrane and carries two PAS domains. Here, we confirm that its role is conserved in various P. aeruginosa strains and in Pseudomonas putida. Deletion of PA0285 impacts the early stage of colonization, and RNA-seq analysis suggests that expression of cupA fimbrial genes is involved. We demonstrate that the C-terminal portion of PA0285 encompassing the GGDEF and EAL domains binds GTP and c-di-GMP, respectively, but only exhibits PDE activity in vitro. However, both GGDEF and EAL domains are important for PA0285 PDE activity in vivo. Complementation of the PA0285 mutant strain with a copy of the gene encoding the C-terminal GGDEF/EAL portion in trans was not as effective as complementation with the full-length gene. This suggests the N-terminal transmembrane and PAS domains influence the PDE activity in vivo, through modulating the protein conformation.

Discovery of novel selective phosphodiesterase­1 inhibitors for the treatment of acute myelogenous leukemia.

Acute myelogenous leukemia (AML) is the most common form of acute leukemia in adults. PDE1 (Phosphodiesterase 1) is a subfamily of the PDE super-enzyme families that can hydrolyze the second messengers cAMP and cGMP simultaneously. Previous research has shown that suppressing the gene expression of PDE1 can trigger apoptosis of human leukemia cells. However, no selective PDE1 inhibitors have been used to explore whether PDE1 is a potential target for treating AML. Based on our previously reported PDE9/PDE1 dual inhibitor 11a, a series of novel pyrazolopyrimidinone derivatives were designed in this study. The lead compound 6c showed an IC50 of 7.5 nM against PDE1, excellent selectivity over other PDEs and good metabolic stability. In AML cells, compound 6c significantly inhibited the proliferation and induced apoptosis. Further experiments indicated that the apoptosis induced by 6c was through a mitochondria-dependent pathway by decreasing the ratio of Bcl-2/Bax and increasing the cleavage of caspase-3, 7, 9, and PARP. All these results suggested that PDE1 might be a novel target for AML.

Recurrent viral capture of cellular phosphodiesterases that antagonize OAS-RNase L.

Phosphodiesterases (PDEs) encoded by viruses are putatively acquired by horizontal transfer of cellular PDE ancestor genes. Viral PDEs inhibit the OAS-RNase L antiviral pathway, a key effector component of the innate immune response. Although the function of these proteins is well-characterized, the origins of these gene acquisitions are less clear. Phylogenetic analysis revealed at least five independent PDE acquisition events by ancestral viruses. We found evidence that PDE-encoding genes were horizontally transferred between coronaviruses belonging to different genera. Three clades of viruses within Nidovirales: merbecoviruses (MERS-CoV), embecoviruses (HCoV-OC43), and toroviruses encode independently acquired PDEs, and a clade of rodent alphacoronaviruses acquired an embecovirus PDE via recent horizontal transfer. Among rotaviruses, the PDE of rotavirus A was acquired independently from rotavirus B and G PDEs, which share a common ancestor. Conserved motif analysis suggests a link between all viral PDEs and a similar ancestor among the mammalian AKAP7 proteins despite low levels of sequence conservation. Additionally, we used ancestral sequence reconstruction and structural modeling to reveal that sequence and structural divergence are not well-correlated among these proteins. Specifically, merbecovirus PDEs are as structurally divergent from the ancestral protein and the solved structure of human AKAP7 PDE as they are from each other. In contrast, comparisons of rotavirus B and G PDEs reveal virtually unchanged structures despite evidence for loss of function in one, suggesting impactful changes that lie outside conserved catalytic sites. These findings highlight the complex and volatile evolutionary history of viral PDEs and provide a framework to facilitate future studies.

Naturally occurring quercetin and myricetin as potent inhibitors for human ectonucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase 1.

Ecto-nucleotide pyrophosphatases/phosphodiesterases 1 (ENPP1) is a key enzyme in purinergic signaling pathways responsible for cell-to-cell communications and regulation of several fundamental pathophysiological processes. In this study, Kyoto Green, a rapid chemical sensor of pyrophosphate, was employed to screen for effective ENPP1 inhibitors among five representative flavonoids (quercetin, myricetin, morin, kaempferol, and quercetin-3-glucoside), five nucleosides (adenosine, guanosine, inosine, uridine, and cytidine), and five deoxynucleosides (2'- and 3'-deoxyadenosine, 2'-deoxyguanosine, 2'-deoxyinosine, and 2'-deoxyuridine). Conventional colorimetric, fluorescence, and bioluminescence assays revealed that ENPP1 was effectively inhibited by quercetin (Ki ~ 4 nM) and myricetin (Ki ~ 32 nM) when ATP was used as a substrate at pH 7.4. In silico analysis indicated that the presence of a chromone scaffold, particularly one containing a hydroxyl group at the 3' position on the B ring, may promote binding to the active site pocket of ENPP1 and enhance inhibition. This study demonstrated that the naturally derived quercetin and myricetin could effectively inhibit ENPP1 enzymatic activity and may offer health benefits in arthritis management.

Cartilage tissues regulate systemic aging via ectonucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase 1 in mice.

Aging presents fundamental health concerns worldwide; however, mechanisms underlying how aging is regulated are not fully understood. Here, we show that cartilage regulates aging by controlling phosphate metabolism via ectonucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase 1 (Enpp1). We newly established an Enpp1 reporter mouse, in which an EGFP-luciferase sequence was knocked-in at the Enpp1 gene start codon (Enpp1/EGFP-luciferase), enabling detection of Enpp1 expression in cartilage tissues of resultant mice. We then established a cartilage-specific Enpp1 conditional knockout mouse (Enpp1 cKO) by generating Enpp1 flox mice and crossing them with cartilage-specific type 2 collagen Cre mice. Relative to WT controls, Enpp1 cKO mice exhibited phenotypes resembling human aging, such as short life span, ectopic calcifications, and osteoporosis, as well as significantly lower serum pyrophosphate levels. We also observed significant weight loss and worsening of osteoporosis in Enpp1 cKO mice under phosphate overload conditions, similar to global Enpp1-deficient mice. Aging phenotypes seen in Enpp1 cKO mice under phosphate overload conditions were rescued by a low vitamin D diet, even under high phosphate conditions. These findings suggest overall that cartilage tissue plays an important role in regulating systemic aging via Enpp1.

ENPP1 in Blood and Bone: Skeletal and Soft Tissue Diseases Induced by ENPP1 Deficiency.

The enzyme ectonucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase 1 (ENPP1) codes for a type 2 transmembrane glycoprotein that hydrolyzes extracellular ATP to generate pyrophosphate (PPi) and adenosine monophosphate, thereby contributing to downstream purinergic signaling pathways. The clinical phenotypes induced by ENPP1 deficiency are seemingly contradictory and include early-onset osteoporosis in middle-aged adults and life-threatening vascular calcifications in the large arteries of infants with generalized arterial calcification of infancy. The progressive overmineralization of soft tissue and concurrent undermineralization of skeleton also occur in the general medical population, where it is referred to as paradoxical mineralization to highlight the confusing pathophysiology. This review summarizes the clinical presentation and pathophysiology of paradoxical mineralization unveiled by ENPP1 deficiency and the bench-to-bedside development of a novel ENPP1 biologics designed to treat mineralization disorders in the rare disease and general medical population.